Performance and Versatility of Single-Frequency DFT Detectors

ABSTRACT

Described herein are systems and methods for improving performance of single-frequency (single-point, single-bin) discrete Fourier transform (DFT) detectors by elimination of systematic errors from the detector output. Calibration procedures known in the art for practical implementations of such detectors do not provide adequate reduction of these systematic errors thus reducing utilization of these detectors in useful applications and products. The described methods, systems and devices allow such detectors to measure both DC and AC signals and, in latter case, considerably expand the operation frequency range without any additional hardware. These methods enable wide practical applications of DFT detectors across diverse variety of fields: from monitoring health of mechanical structures and fluid properties to impedimetric measurements in electrochemistry, monitoring of corrosion and bioimpedance.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is related to U.S. provisional application: Ser. No. 62/046,732 filed on Sep. 5, 2014 by Leonid Matsiev.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The invention relates to concepts such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Smart Home and Smart Cities that require the development and deployment of a wide variety of computing devices incorporated into the Internet infrastructure. Unsupervised sensing is the cornerstone capability that these devices must have to perform useful functions, while also having low cost of acquisition and ownership, little energy consumption and a small footprint. Impedimetric sensing systems based on the so-called single-frequency DFT detectors possess many of these desirable attributes and are often introduced in remote monitoring and wearable devices.

Single-frequency (single-point, single-bin) discrete Fourier transform (DFT) detectors are known in the art. Such systems and devices include digital detectors or receivers also known as sine wave correlators, homodyne and synchrodyne detectors and digital synchronous quadrature detectors/demodulators. More specifically, such DFT detectors calculate the inner product of a finite input sequence of digitized samples equally spaced in time (input vector) by a likewise sampled complex-valued exponential function of a given test frequency (analysis or test vector) thereby producing a single complex value comprised of the in-phase and quadrature components of the input at the test frequency.

Such detectors find practical applications across diverse variety of fields: resonator-based measurements in structural health and fluid properties monitoring, non-resonant impedimetric measurements of corrosion, electrochemistry and bioimpedance.

Without limitation, and without being bound by theory not expressly recited in the claims, the following references are representative examples of the applications in which DFT detectors are used or can be used for practical measurements:

-   (1) Park, S.; Grisso, B.; Inman, D. J.; Yun, C. B. A new active     sensing device for wireless telemetry-based structural health     monitoring. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on     Earthquake Engineering, Taipei, Taiwan, 12-13 Oct., 2006; -   (2) Taylor, S. G.; Farinholt, K. M.; Flynn, E. B.; Figueiredo, E.;     Mascarenas, D. L.; Moro, E. A.; Park, G.; Todd, M. D.; Farrar, C. R.     A mobile-agent-based wireless sensing network for structural     monitoring applications. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2009, 20, 045201. -   (3) Kowalewski, M.; Lentka, G. Remote Monitoring System for     Impedance Spectroscopy Using Wireless Sensor Network. In Proceedings     of the XX IMEKO World Congress, Metrology for Green Growth, Busan,     Korea, 9-14 Sep. 2012; p. imeko.org. -   (4) Wandowski, T.; Malinowski, P.; Ostachowicz, W. Calibration     Problem of AD5933 Device for Electromechanical Impedance     Measurements. In Proceedings of the EWSHM-7th European Workshop on     Structural Health Monitoring, Nantes, France, 8-11 Jul. 2014; pp.     480-487. -   (5) Park, S.; Park, S.; Kim, J.; Chang, H. Debonding condition     monitoring of a CFRP laminated concrete beam using piezoelectric     impedance sensor nodes. In Proceedings for FraMCos-7-7th     International Conference on Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and     Concrete Structures, Jeju, Korea, 23-28 May 2010; pp. 1248-1254. -   (6) Mascarenas, D. D. L. Development of an Impedance Method Based     Wireless Sensor Node for Monitoring of Bolted Joint Preload. Ph.D.     Thesis, University of California, San Diego, Calif., USA, 2006. -   (7) Mascarenas, D. L.; Todd, M. D.; Park, G.; Farrar, C. R. Remote     Inspection of Bolted Joints using RFID-Tagged Piezoelectric Sensors.     In Proceeding of the IMAC-XXIV: Conference & Exposition on     Structural Dynamics, St. Louis, Mo., USA, 2006; pp. CD-ROM. -   (8) Matsiev, L. Application of flexural mechanical resonators to     simultaneous measurements of liquid density and viscosity. In     Proceedings of the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, Lake Tahoe, Nev.,     USA, 17-20 Oct. 1999; Volume 1, pp. 457-460. -   (9) Matsiev, L. Application of flexural mechanical resonators to     high throughput liquid characterization. In Proceedings of the IEEE     Ultrasonics Symposium, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 22-25 Oct., 2000;     Volume 1, pp. 427-434. -   (10) Dobrinski, H.; Buhrdorf, A.; Lindemann, M.; Ludtke, O.     Combi-Sensor for Oil Level and Oil Quality Management; SAE     International: Warrendale, Pa., USA, 2008. -   (11) Milpied, J.; Uhrich, M.; Patissier, B.; Bernasconi, L.     Applications of tuning fork resonators for engine oil, fuel,     biodiesel fuel and urea quality monitoring. SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr.     2010, 2, 45-53. -   (12) DiFoggio, R.; Walkow, A.; Bergren, P. Method and Apparatus for     Downhole Fluid Characterization Using Flexural Mechanical     Resonators. U.S. Pat. No. 6,938,47, February 2005. -   (13) Reittinger, P. W. System and Method for Determining     Producibility of a Formation Using Flexural Mechanical Resonator     Measurements. U.S. Pat. No. 7,844,401, November 2010. -   (14) Sell, J.; Niedermayer, A.; Jakoby, B. Simultaneous measurement     of density and viscosity in gases with a quartz tuning fork     resonator by tracking of the series resonance frequency. Proced.     Eng. 2011, 25, 1297-1300. -   (15) Jarvinen, P. Total impedance and complex dielectric property     ice detection system. U.S. Pat. No. 7,439,877, October, 2008. -   (16) Yepez, E.; Roach, D.; Rackow, K.; DeLong, W. Mountable eddy     current sensor for in-situ remote detection of surface and     sub-surface fatigue cracks. U.S. Pat. No. 8,013,600, September,     2011. -   (17) De Ceuninck, W.; van Grinsven, B.; Wagner, P. A biosensor using     impedimetric real-time monitoring. WO Patent App.     PCT/EP2011/071,090, June, 2012. -   (18) Angelini, E.; Carullo, A.; Corbellini, S.; Ferraris, F.;     Gallone, V.; Grassini, S.; Parvis, M.; Vallan, A.     Handheld-impedance-measurement system with seven-decade capability     and potentiostatic function. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2006, 55,     436-441. -   (19) Howard, D.; Mansell, M.; Barksdale, T.; Greenberger, H.;     Hicks, M. Detecting a Loudspeaker Configuration. U.S. Pat. No.     8,325,931, December, 2012. -   (20) Majer, L.; Stopjaková, V.; Vavrinsky, E. Sensitive and accurate     measurement environment for continuous biomedical monitoring using     microelectrodes. MEASUREMENT SCIENCE REVIEW, Vol. 7, Section 2, No.     3, 2007; pp. 20-24 -   (21) Licata, D.; Johansen, J.; Slizynski, R.; Love, S. Device and     method for accessing and treating ducts of mammary glands. WO Patent     App. PCT/US2009/040,730, October, 2009. -   (22) Ferreira, J.; Seoane, F.; Ansede, A.; Bragos, R. AD5933-based     spectrometer for electrical bioimpedance applications. J. Phys.     Conf. Ser. 2010, 224, 012011. -   (23) Mazar, S. Method and apparatus to measure bioelectric impedance     of patient tissue. U.S. Pat. No. 8,412,317, Aprial, 2013. -   (24) Seoane, F.; Ferreira, J.; Sanchez, J. J.; Bragós, R. An analog     front-end enables electrical impedance spectroscopy system on-chip     for biomedical applications. Physiol. Meas. 2008, 29, S267. -   (25) Schlebusch, T.; Rothlingshofer, L.; Kim, S.; Kony, M.;     Leonhardt, S. On the road to a textile integrated bioimpedance early     warning system for lung edema. In Proceedings of the International     Conference on Body Sensor Networks (BSN); IEEE: Biopolis, Singapore,     Jun. 7-9, 2010; pp. 302-307. -   (26) Gonzalez, J. F. Textile-enabled Bioimpedance Instrumentation     for Personalized Health Monitoring Applications. Ph.D. Thesis, KTH     Royal, Stockholm, Sweden, 2013. -   (27) Kamat, D.; Chavan, A. P.; Patil, P. Bio-Impedance Measurement     System for Analysis of Skin Diseases. Int. J. Appl. Innov. Eng.     Manag. 2014, 3, 92-96. -   (28) Berney, H.; O'Riordan, J. Impedance measurement monitors blood     coagulation. Analog. Dialogue 42-08, Auguest, 2008, 42, 1-3. -   (29) Broeders, J.; Duchateau, S.; van Grinsven, B.; Vanaken, W.;     Peeters, M.; Cleij, T.; Thoelen, R.; Wagner, P.; de Ceuninck, W.     Miniaturised eight-channel impedance spectroscopy unit as sensor     platform for biosensor applications. Phys. Status Solidi. A 2011,     208, 1357-1363. -   (30) Hoja, J.; Lentka, G. Portable analyzer for impedance     spectroscopy. In Proceedings of the XIX IMEKO World Congress     Fundamental and Applied Metrology, Lisbon, Portugal, 6-11 September,     2009; pp. 497-502. -   (31) Hoja, J.; Lentka, G. A family of new generation miniaturized     impedance analyzers for technical object diagnostics. Metrol. Meas.     Syst. 2013, 20, 43-52.

BACKGROUND ART

While there may be multiple ways of implementing DFT detectors utilizing various hardware designs and digital signal processors (DSPs), of a particular interest for practical applications are the commercially available, single-chip DFT devices designed specifically for impedimetric applications by Analog Devices:

-   (32) AD5933 Datasheet; Analog Devices: Norwood, Mass., USA, 2007. -   (33) Caffrey, J. F.; Geraghty, D. P.; Lyden, C. G.; O'Grady, A. C.;     Slattery, C. F.; Smith, S. Measuring Circuit and a Method for     Determining a Characteristic of the Impedance of a Complex Impedance     Element for Facilitating Characterization of the Impedance Thereof.     U.S. Pat. No. 7,555,394, June, 2009. -   (34) Evaluation Board for the 1 Msps 12-bit Impedance Converter     Network Analyzer; Analog Devices Technical Report; Analog Devices,     Norwood, Mass., USA, 2005. -   (35) Leonard, E. Optimize Speaker Impedance Matching for Best Audio     Results. EE Times, 26 Apr. 2006, p. id=1274771. -   (36) Brennan, S. Measuring a Loudspeaker Impedance Profile Using the     AD5933; Analog Devices Application Note AN-843; Analog Devices,     Norwood, Mass., USA, 2007; pp. 1-12. -   (37) ADuCM350 Datasheet; Analog Devices: Norwood, Mass., USA, 2014.

All the art cited above is predominantly focusing on the end applications and lacks specific error analysis in conjunction with operation frequency range and calibration methods, relying heavily on the information from the device datasheet. For example, the operating frequency range with a 16 MHz clock is stated to be from 1 KHz to 100 KHz with the system accuracy of 0.5%. for the impedance dynamic range of 1 kΩ to 10 MΩ, but no experimental data on accuracy given.

The calibration procedure proposed in the AD5933 datasheet and widely replicated in the literature does not take into account the errors caused by discontinuous test phasor: resulting form the DC offset at the detector input and the cross-talk between in-phase and quadrature channels. The calibration procedure described in the art produces a single multiplicative gain factor that leads to rather sizeable systematic errors and undue disappointment in the device performance (see publication (4)), especially at the lower end of the operation frequency range.

Notwithstanding the various advances known in the art in connection with utilization of DFT detectors, there remains a need in the art for improvements, especially improvements which enhance the accuracy and versatility of such detectors in a variety of applications, allowing for reduction in hardware, footprint, power consumption, cost and environmental impact of the resulting electronic products.

DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION

As with any kind of digital implementation of a mathematical algorithm the DFT suffers from inaccuracies resulting from limited precision of binary representations of real numbers and functions. These computation errors are typically grossly overshadowed by the quantization errors and sampling artifacts caused by the discrete nature of the DFT, which usually have to be mitigated to achieve accurate results.

While the particularities of the input signal vector do contribute to the detector output value, their presence may be hidden from the practitioner and not taken into account during the device calibration. This may lead the practitioners away from using DFT detectors in their designs and unnecessary settling for much more expensive and redundant technical solutions narrowing the potential market for the final product.

Single-frequency DFT detectors utilized in impedimetric measurements suffer from a particular kind of systematic error that is erroneously attributed to spectral leakage in the literature. DFT is calculated as the inner product of the sampled signal vector being measured and the sampled test phasor. Spectral leakage is the type of error that occurs in DFT when the frequency of the signal being measured differs from the frequency of the test phasor. In impedimentric measurements with DFT detectors one of the phasor components is utilized for generation of excitation stimulus which, therefore, has the same frequency as the test phasor The device under test (DUT) response has the same frequency as the stimulus (if non-linear, may contain higher harmonics of the stimulus) and thus can not cause spectral leakage.

Due to practical hardware limitations in the length of sampled signal vector and phasor, these vectors rarely contain integer number of cycles at a given frequency, which, from the standpoint of Fourier analysis, makes such phasors discontinuous. These discontinuous test phasors do not form a proper orthogonal Fourier basis and that is what is causing gross deviation form the Fourier results predicted by the theory for continuous phasors.

As those errors were historically attributed to spectral leakage, windowing—the well-known method for spectral leakage suppression—is applied to the errors caused by discontinuous test phasors. While helping to a certain degree, windowing further obscures the nature of the systematic errors and still does not allow DFT detectors to operate at full frequency range and accuracy afforded by the hardware. Attributing this specific type of error to spectral leakage not only leads to inefficient error mitigation procedures and algorithms, but also to incorrect calibration procedures.

The present inventions provide apparatus, systems and methods related to operation of DFT detectors.

More specifically this invention discloses a calibration method and a system that eliminates all sources of errors caused by discontinuous test phasors. This method achieves accuracy limited only by the hardware errors resulting from the digital implementation of the DFT: accuracy of the direct digital synthesizer (DDS), signal digitization by sampling ADC and fixed-point arithmetic truncation in DFT core.

More specifically this invention discloses a method and a system that measures both AC and DC signals utilizing the same DFT detector hardware for both types of measurements.

More specifically this invention discloses a method that significantly extends operation frequency range of the DFT detector, especially the lower limit, without using additional hardware.

The present invention discloses that the discontinuous test phasor causes the DC signal present at the DFT detector input to affect the detector in-phase and quadratrure outputs when the test phasor is discontinuous. This DC error is additive in nature and can be considered a “DC leakage” from the detector input to the detector in-phase and quadrature outputs. The error produced by DC offset is proportional to the offset magnitude and can be expressed by in-phase G_(I) and quadrature G_(Q) gain factors. In case of continuous test phasors both gains would be equal zero at any frequency.

The present invention discloses that these DC leakage error gain factors can be explicitly expressed as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {{G_{I} = \frac{{{Sin}^{2}\left( \frac{\pi}{N} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {2\pi \; {fN}} \right)}}{4{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} + f} \right)} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} - f} \right)} \right)}{{Tan}\left( {\pi \; f} \right)}}}{{G_{Q} = {- \frac{{{Sin}^{2}\left( \frac{\pi}{N} \right)}{{Sin}^{2}\left( {\pi \; {fN}} \right)}}{2{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} + f} \right)} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} - f} \right)} \right)}{{Tan}\left( {\pi \; f} \right)}}}},}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

where f is a normalized test frequency (test frequency divided by sampling frequency) and N is the total number of samples used to perform DFT.

The present invention discloses that for the AC signals the discontinuous test phasor causes the detector in-phase and quadrature gains to be frequency-dependent (instead of constant) and also causes be frequency-dependent cross-talk between the detector in-phase and quadrature outputs. These frequency-dependent gains and cross-talk can be considered a form of an “AC leakage” of the input signal to the detector outputs and cross-talk a form of “AC leakage” between the detector outputs.

The present invention discloses that said AC gain and cross-talk effects can be expressed in a matrix form as follows:

${\begin{pmatrix} S_{I} \\ S_{Q} \end{pmatrix} = {\begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ b & d \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} {A\; {Cos}\; (\phi)} \\ {A\; {{Sin}(\phi)}} \end{pmatrix}}},$

where S_(I) and S_(Q) are the DFT detector outputs, diagonal matrix elements a and d are the in-phase and quadratrure gains, matrix element b is the cross-talk factor, A and co are the AC signal amplitude and phase.

The present invention discloses that said matrix elements a, b and d can be explicitly expressed as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {{a = {\frac{1}{4}\left( {N + \frac{{{Sin}^{2}\left( \frac{\pi}{N} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {4\pi \; {fN}} \right)}}{2{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} + {2f}} \right)} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} - {2f}} \right)} \right)}{{Tan}\left( {2\pi \; f} \right)}}} \right)}}{b = \frac{{{Sin}^{2}\left( \frac{\pi}{N} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {2\pi \; {fN}} \right)}}{4{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} + {2f}} \right)} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} - {2f}} \right)} \right)}{{Tan}\left( {2\pi \; f} \right)}}}{{d = {\frac{1}{4}\left( {N - \frac{{{Sin}^{2}\left( \frac{\pi}{N} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {4\pi \; {fN}} \right)}}{2{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} + {2f}} \right)} \right)}{{Sin}\left( {\pi \left( {\frac{1}{N} - {2f}} \right)} \right)}{{Tan}\left( {2\pi \; f} \right)}}} \right)}},}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

where f is a normalized test frequency (test frequency divided by sampling frequency) and N is the total number of samples used to perform DFT.

The present invention discloses that with the expressions (2) above, it is possible to calculate all three matrix elements a, b and d for any frequency f and length of the sampled signal vector N and then for any detector output values of S_(I) and S_(Q) to completely eliminate the AC leakage by simply solving the system of linear equations for A Cos(φ) and A Sin(φ):

$\begin{matrix} {{{\begin{pmatrix} S_{I} \\ S_{Q} \end{pmatrix} = {\left. {\begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ b & d \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} {A\; {Cos}\; (\phi)} \\ {A\; {{Sin}(\phi)}} \end{pmatrix}}\Rightarrow{A\; {Cos}\; (\phi)} \right. = \frac{{b\; S_{Q}} - {d\; S_{I}}}{b^{2} - {ad}}}};}{{A\; {Sin}\; (\phi)} = \frac{{b\; S_{I}} - {d\; S_{Q}}}{b^{2} - {ad}}}} & (3) \end{matrix}$

Detailed derivation of the above expressions is given in (38) Matsiev, L. Improving Performance and Versatility of Systems Based on Single-Frequency DFT Detectors such as AD5933. Electronics 2015, 4, 1-34, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The present invention discloses that calibration procedures for single-frequency DFT detectors known in the art can not eliminate the DC and AC errors related to discontinuous test phasor and are inadequate for the detector to operate in presence of the DC offset in the signal and/or within broad frequency range.

The present invention discloses that prior to attempting conventional calibration, the DFT detector response to DC offset within working frequency range must be recorded and stored in some form of intermediate memory. Matrix elements a, b and d have to be calculated and stored in some form of intermediate memory for the same working frequency range at the same set of frequency points. In presence of AC signal of interest detector outputs S_(I) and S_(Q) have to be recorded within same working frequency range at the same set of frequency points and the DC data stored earlier must be subtracted from S_(I) and S_(Q) at each frequency point. Then thus corrected values and matrix elements a, b and d must be substituted into expressions (3) and the in-phase A Cos(φ) and quadrature A Sin(φ) components of the AC signal of interest calculated. Only at this stage these two values can be used in the conventional calibration procedure to obtain a single multiplicative gain factor.

Those skilled in the art would appreciate that, without loss of generality, multiple variations of this procedure yielding the same result can be implemented. For example, matrix elements a, b and d can be calculated at the instance the detector outputs S_(I) and S_(Q) have been acquired, earlier collected DC responses subtracted and expressions (3) evaluated “on the fly” at a given frequency point using less intermediate storage, etc.

The present invention discloses that application of these methods of error elimination achieves the maximum accuracy possible for a given DFT detector implementation. The remaining systematic accuracy-limiting factors are intrinsic to the detector digital design: truncation of the test phasor amplitude and phase, limited resolution of the digitized input, truncations in the DFT fixed-point arithmetic, etc.

The present invention discloses that the expressions above allows for easy identification and correction of the fixed-point arithmetic overflow that may occur depending on given implementation of the DFT and the magnitude of the input DC and AC signals. As any fixed-point implementation restricts the dynamic range of the operands involved in the DFT calculations due to the hardware-limited bitlength, the summations may result in overflow. With the developed knowledge of the DC and AC leakage as a function of normalized frequency it is straightforward to anticipate the overflow near the extrema of the in-phase and quadrature gains G_(I), G_(Q), a and d and correct for it once it occurs.

Various further aspects, embodiments and features of the invention are described herein throughout the specification and drawings. Various features of the invention, including features defining each of the various aspects of the invention, including general and preferred embodiments thereof, can be used in various combinations and permutations with other features of the invention. Features and advantages are described herein, and will be apparent from the Drawings and the following Modes for Carrying out the Invention and examples further describing the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 (A-C) illustrate experimentally observed internal DC leakage Δ_(Re) and Δ_(Im): data from the AD5933 “Real” and “Imaginary” output registers respectively, collected over there frequency ranges from low to high (FIG. 1A), (FIG. 1B) and (FIG. 1C).

FIG. 2 illustrates simplified schematic for practicing the invention with AD5933, more specifically, for eliminating AD5933 internal DC leakage from network analysis: internal DC offset is processed by the on-chip circuitry and recorded when the switch is open.

FIG. 3 illustrates simplified schematic for practicing the invention with AD5933, more specifically, for eliminating AD5933 internal DC leakage from AC signal: internal DC offset is processed by the on-chip circuitry and recorded when the switch is open.

FIG. 4 illustrates simplified schematic for practicing the invention with AD5933. The selector switch allows for calibration, DC and AC measurements with the same hardware: internal DC offset is processed by the on-chip circuitry and recorded when the selector switch is at the bottom, system DC gain is measured when the switch is connected to a calibrated DC current source. Same system measures AC current when the selector switch is in top position.

FIG. 5 (A, B) illustrate method performance for measuring the response of a 140 kΩ resistor as DUT: (A): raw data S_(Re) and S_(Im) and (B): data processed according to the invention utilizing equations (3) left y-axis for A Cos(φ) and right y-axis for A Sin(φ). Systematic error exceeding tens percent is reduced by processing the data to below 1% for the most of the frequency range.

Various aspects of the figures are described in further detail below, in connection with the Modes for Carrying out the Invention.

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

The present inventions provide apparatus, systems and methods related to impedimetric measurements utilizing single-frequency DFT detectors. The apparatus, systems and methods of the invention are more specifically aimed at detector errors elimination to achieve the maximum accuracy possible for a given DFT detector implementation.

The examples of impedimetic systems on a chip based on DTF detector are the AD5933, AD5934 and ADuCM350 by Analog devices. According to the AD5933 datasheet, the AD5933 is an impedance converter system solution that combines a programmable direct digital synthesizer (DDS) with a sampling ADC, Hanning window, and a DFT detector that returns real and imaginary data-words at a fixed sampling frequency and pre-programmed test frequency. The AD5933 device is a nearly ideal platform for implementation of the invented methods as it dramatically exhibits all the effects of the single-frequency DFT detector-based system described in the Disclosure of Invention above.

Applications based on AD5933 can greatly benefit from the invented methods as the calibration techniques described in the datasheet and widely replicated in the literature are often inadequate. Also, there is an interest in low-frequency applications of this integrated circuit for measuring bio-impedance, corrosion, fluid monitoring, structural health, water quality, and properties of loudspeakers, manifested in a number of publications listed above. The known solution to AD5933 low-frequency operation is based on dividing down the external clock frequency, which requires additional hardware. The invented methods allow for significant expansion of the low end of the frequency range without any additional hardware.

The only hardware necessary to demonstrate the invention is the commercially available AD5933 evaluation board by Analog Devices. To demonstrate the performance of the invented methods high-accuracy, calibrated resistors and capacitors were utilized. The evaluation board is supplied with the software that allows the user to communicate with the AD5933 over the USB interface, setup and perform frequency sweeps and store the data from “Real” and “Imaginary” registers of the AD5933 as text files. “Real” and “Imaginary” data registers correspond to in-phase and quadratrure outputs of the DFT detector discussed earlier.

The AD5933 is a complete single-chip network analyzer: it synthesizes its own excitation voltage, performs current defection, sampling, A-to-D conversion and DFT processing. As such, it is a closed system (a “black box”) that can be best characterized by using known calibrated impedances as DUTs and observing whether the digital output conforms to the response predicted by theory for a given DUT.

To bridge the gap between the expressions provided in previous sections and practical application, it is necessary to provide values for the variables. From the AD5933 datasheet, the length of the sampled signal vector is 1024, so N=1024. From the block overview diagram of the AD5933 in the datasheet [FIG. 17] it follows that the direct digital synthesizer (DDS) of the device also provides synchronous cosine/sine test phasor to the DFT module, so it is necessary to connect the normalized frequency f and the frequency control word for the synthesizer. In the AD5933 datasheet the DDS frequency control word is also referred to as the Frequency Code and this notation will be used for the remainder of this text.

The DDS is based on a 27-bit phase accumulator, which increments by the Frequency Code at every tick of the system clock; therefore, the frequency of the accumulator overflows is Frequency Code/2²⁷. Although not stated explicitly, from the text in the datasheet it follows that the sampling of the input (and also the test phasor) takes place every 4 accumulator increments. Then the current phase of the test phasor at a given summation index k is 2π·(4·Frequency Code/2²⁷)·k plus some residual value from the accumulator previous overflow. Therefore, the normalized frequency f=4·Frequency Code/2²⁷ or f=Frequency Code/2²⁵.

As is typical for the digital systems such as DDS and DFT, all the considerations above are independent of the physical frequency. According to the datasheet, the accumulator increments every fourth cycle of the clock oscillator (internal or external) and thus the system physical frequency is (f_(Clk)/4)(Frequency Code/2²⁷)=f_(Clk)·Frequency Code/2²⁹, where f_(Clk) is the clock oscillator frequency. In the interest of clarity, the experimental results are presented with the reference to the Frequency Code, as it is easy to convert back and forth between the latter and either the normalized frequency f or physical frequency based on the source of system clock.

The characteristic feature of the AD5933 not explicitly mentioned in the datasheet is that the substantial DC offset is always present at the input of the DFT detector. The datasheet [FIG. 20] shows the “receive stage” of the device, depicting the VDD/2 voltage to be constantly present at the output of the amplifiers and at the input of the ADC in the absence of external circuits connected to pin 5 (VIN). Therefore, some binary number of a magnitude close to half of the ADC full scale is always present at the input of the DFT detector by design.

To observe the effect of this DC leakage experimentally it is sufficient to disconnect everything, except the feedback resistor, from the pin 5. This turns the internal amplifier circuit of the receiving stage into a voltage follower that passes VDD/2 to the ADC input. The exact value of the feedback resistor is not important in these measurements, but the feedback resistor R_(fb) of 200 kΩ was utilized. Then a sweep can be performed by programming the AD5933 with the parameters shown in Table 1 (as referred to in the datasheet).

TABLE 1 Sweep parameters. Start Frequency Code 350 Frequency Increment Code 150 Number of Increments 511 Output Voltage Range Any Programmable Amplifier Gain Any External/Internal system clock Any Number of Settling Cycles Register D0-D8 Any, except 0 Number of Settling Cycles Register D9-D10  0

To distinguish experimental data from the correspondent identifiers S_(I) and S_(Q) in the expressions, the internal DC leakage data collected from the AD5933 output registers is designated as Δ_(Re) and Δ_(Im) respectively.

The “Real” and “Imaginary” data behave predominantly as predicted by the formulae (2) for Δ_(I) and Δ_(Q) respective gain factors G_(I) and G_(Q) in the range of f from 0 to 2/N corresponding to Frequency Code from 0 to 80000 (FIG. 1A), except for the inversion of the imaginary data and some additional gain in both channels. The likely reason for the inversion is that the minus sign in front of the sum of samples of the test sine vector in the DFT core is implied, but not implemented in the AD5933 device. A sweep with the same set of parameters except for starting at Frequency Code=45000 produces the Δ_(Re) and Δ_(Im) data shown in (FIG. 1B). Again, the data collected from the device behave as predicted by the formulae (1) for G_(I) and G_(Q) in the range off above 2/N. Sweeping further with the same parameters, except for higher Start Frequency Code=100000 and Frequency Increment Code=450, it is easy to observe that the behavior predicted by the formulae (1) continues at higher frequencies, see (FIG. 10). Although decreasing in magnitude with increasing Frequency Code, the DC leakages Δ_(Re) and Δ_(Im) still far exceed other sources of errors—irregular ripples barely visible on the chart (FIG. 10). Unless this effect of the DC leakage is taken into account and eliminated using the proposed method, the data from AD5933 contains a significant systematic error and the device cannot be utilized to its full potential.

The above experiments can be easily reproduced at higher frequencies to observe that the error from the DC leakage decreases further, but still stays rather prominent in comparison to intrinsic system inaccuracies, noise and interference at all frequencies within the advertised operating frequency range. The calibration method recommended in the datasheet aims to correct only for multiplicative gain and the resulting accuracy suffers greatly from this DC leakage systematic error, which is additive in nature. Narrowing the frequency range, assuming the gain linearly changing across the sweep and using multi-point calibration as advised do not help much, as the DC leakage error oscillates with the frequency.

To remove the effects of the DC leakage the following steps have to be taken:

-   -   1. Disconnect any circuits except for the feedback resistor from         pin 5 (VIN).     -   2. Take a sweep within the intended frequency range and store         data in some kind of memory, in a microcontroller, host PC, etc.     -   3. Connect the circuit of interest to pin 5 and take a sweep.     -   4. Subtract the recorded data from the collected data—the result         is the response of the circuit of interest.

The additional benefit of this method is that, due to additive nature of the DFT, other errors that are stable in time will all be subtracted from the signal of interest.

A simplified schematic for performing the proposed procedure for the network analysis—the intended purpose of AD5933—is illustrated in (FIG. 2). The network is shown as the two-port Device Under Test (DUT). The DUT is not necessarily limited to a two-port circuit such as some passive impedance network, but could also represent a more complex multi-port network, for example, a filter, or an active circuit such as an audio amplifier or an active filter, analog front end (AFE) circuit, etc. The switch is shown in open position for acquisition and recording of the DC leakage sweep to be subtracted from the following measurements of the DUT response to the AC excitation voltage from pin 6 (VOUT) when the switch is closed. The switch can also be replaced by a relay, analog semiconductor switch, and any other such means to provide the necessary switching function for temporary isolating the VIN node.

Depending on the specific nature of the DUT, it may also transfer some or all of the DC component of the excitation voltage from pin 6 (VOUT) to VIN node, so care must be taken to block this DC.

Similarly, a simplified schematic for performing the proposed procedure for measuring the external signal is illustrated on (FIG. 3). The switch is shown in open position for acquisition and recording of the DC leakage sweep to be subtracted from the following measurements of the signal of interest. Depending on the application, the excitation voltage from pin 6 (VOUT) may or may not be utilized for synchronization of the external signal source.

The expressions (1) and experiments identified the frequency ranges, where the DFT detector produces substantial gains for DC leakage, both in “Real” (in-phase) and “Imaginary” (quadrature) data. A single frequency measurement within such frequency range is sufficient to obtain the accurate value of a DC signal.

A simplified schematic for performing the procedure is shown in (FIG. 4). For illustration purposes let us assume that a user prefers to measure the DC signal utilizing the data from “Imaginary” data register. Looking at (FIG. 1A) it is easy to see that the DC leakage gain reaches maximum around f≈1.3/N, which corresponds to Frequency Code of about 14450 (˜433 Hz at 16 MHz system clock frequency).

The procedure is as follows:

-   -   1. Disconnect the input VIN node (selector bottom position).     -   2. Program the Frequency Code into AD5933, and initiate the         single-frequency measurement, read the content of the imaginary         data register and store it.     -   3. Connect VIN node to calibrated DC source, initiate the         single-frequency measurement, read the content of the imaginary         data register, subtract the value stored in step 2 value,         calculate the ratio of the found difference to the calibrated DC         source magnitude and store it—this is the system gain for DC         signals.     -   4. Switch to connect to the unknown DC signal, initiate the         single-frequency measurement, read the content of the imaginary         data register, subtract the value stored in step 2 value, divide         by the system gain from step 3—the result is the DC signal of         interest.

Equivalently, this method can be practiced with the real register data at frequency codes that correspond to acceptable gain values. Using data at a single frequency point from a single data register constitutes a minimalistic version of this method, but the data from one or both real and imaginary registers at a single frequency or multiple frequencies, or data from a whole frequency sweep within suitable range, can be utilized to arrive at the DC signal value. While these versions of the proposed method may provide somewhat better statistics, additional measurement time and processing may prove to produce diminishing returns and have to be tailored to the application-specific requirements.

The methods and the schematics in (FIG. 2), (FIG. 3) and (FIG. 4) can be combined for switching detector such as AD5933 between measuring DC leakage, calibration, using the same DDS and DFT hardware for measuring DC and AC signals and performing the functions of network analysis.

It has been noted earlier that the practical implementation of the DFT in AD5933 inverts the sign of the inner product of the sampled input and the sine test vector. Also, to the contrary of what is reported in the literature, AD5933 outputs the excitation voltage in a form of a sine wave and not the cosine as is customary in the DFT textbooks. To account for these two particularities it makes sense to designate the data produced by the AD5933 as S_(R), and S_(Im) to distinguish these from the correspondent identifiers S_(I) and S_(Q) introduced earlier and the matrix expression now takes a different form:

$\begin{pmatrix} S_{Re} \\ S_{Im} \end{pmatrix} = {\begin{pmatrix} {- b} & a \\ d & {- b} \end{pmatrix}{\begin{pmatrix} {A\; {Cos}\; (\phi)} \\ {A\; {{Sin}(\phi)}} \end{pmatrix}.}}$

Still, the AC leakage errors can be eliminated by solving the system of linear equations for A Cos(φ) and A Sin(φ), which yields the following:

${{A\; {{Cos}(\phi)}} = \frac{{b\; S_{Re}} - {a\; S_{Im}}}{{ad} - b^{2}}};$ ${A\; {{Sin}(\phi)}} = {\frac{{d\; S_{Re}} - {b\; S_{im}}}{{ad} - b^{2}}.}$

Detailed derivation of the above expressions accounting for AD5933-specific operation is given in (38) Matsiev, L. Improving Performance and Versatility of Systems Based on Single-Frequency DFT Detectors such as AD5933. Electronics 2015, 4, 1-34.

Also, in AD5933 the DFT results are held in the 16-bit “Real” and “Imaginary” registers, which can hold values between 0 and 2¹⁶−1 only and, as it was mentioned earlier, may overflow. The datasheet does not mention any hardware means to flag this condition and the software provided with the evaluation board offers no means of detecting and correcting the overflow.

The proposed method allows for easy overflow identification and correction by comparing the sign of the collected data to the one predicted by expressions (1) and (3). In the experiments below, when the overflow occurs, the sign of the overflown data turns negative—the opposite of what is predicted by the theory and such data can be corrected by simply adding 2¹⁶ to it.

To experimentally observe the effects of DFT low-frequency behavior discussed in the theoretical section, after recording the DC leakage sweep with the feedback resistor R_(fb) of 200 kΩ as explained in the previous section (please see (FIG. 2), (FIG. 3) and (FIG. 4)), a test resistor of 140 kΩ is connected between pin 6 (VOUT) and pin 5 (VIN) (in place of the DUT on (FIG. 2)) through an additional circuit, ensuring that no DC current is flowing across the test resistor. The test sweep is performed with the settings same or similar to the ones used in the DC leakage section, please see Table 2.

TABLE 2 Sweep parameters. Start Frequency Code 350 Frequency Increment Code 150 Number of Increments 511 Output Voltage Range 2 V Programmable Amplifier Gain  1 External/Internal system clock Any Number of Settling Cycles Register D0-D8  1 Number of Settling Cycles Register D9-D10  0

The output data “Re” and “Im” collected from the “Real” and “Imaginary” registers is corrected for the fixed-point overflow and Δ_(Re) and Δ_(Im) the DC leakage sweep recorded earlier—is also subtracted. The resulting data S_(Re)=Re−Δ_(Re) and S_(Im)=Im−Δ_(Im) is plotted on (FIG. 5A).

To process the experimental data shown on (FIG. 5A), it is necessary to calculate the three matrix coefficients a, b and d by substituting N with 1024 and f with 4·Frequency Code/2²⁷ in the expressions (2). This experimental data corrected for leakage utilizing the invented method is shown on (FIG. 5B). They-axis for the in-phase component of the signal A Cos(φ) is on the left and the y-axis for the quadrature component A Sin(φ) is on the right—both y-axes are of the same scale, but of different origins to better show the transitions.

The experimental data processing steps according to the invented method are illustrated in Table 3, where the first column is Frequency Code, second and third columns are the internal DC leakage, fourth and fifth columns are the raw AC response of the resistor, sixth and seventh columns—DC leakage is subtracted, eighth through tenth are the coefficients a, b and d and eleventh and twelfth are the in-phase and quadrature current through the test resistor corrected for both DC and AC leakage. Five sequential frequency points are shown at the beginning, five—in the middle and five—at end of the sweep

The frequency response of an ideal resistor measured by an ideal network analyzer is supposed to consist of a frequency-independent in-phase component and a zero quadrature component. (FIG. 5A) shows the raw data and, for illustration, a theoretical response of an ideal resistor with ±10% error bars. It is easy to see that both in phase and quadrature data S_(Re) and S_(Im) deviate from the expected ideal theoretical behavior by many tens of percent, especially at low frequencies. (FIG. 5B) shows the data processed according to equations (3) and, for illustration, the theoretical response of an ideal resistor with ±0.5% error bars, which is the system accuracy value found in the AD5933 datasheet.

It can be seen that after the processing the in-phase component is much larger than the quadrature one and predominantly constant with the frequency at Frequency Code above about 4000, decreasing sharply at lower Frequency Code values. This means that the applied method allows for complete correction of the DFT leakage errors caused by the discontinuous phasor. Below Frequency Code=4000, which corresponds to about 120 Hz at 16 MHz system clock, the inaccuracy of digital implementation of the DFT becomes prevalent. The quadrature component is close to 0, slowly decreasing into negative values with the increasing frequency. This behavior of the quadrature component is the result of the phase delay caused by the low-pass filter at the input of the ADC, shown on the functional block diagram in the datasheet. This can be easily accounted for and further corrected by applying conventional calibration techniques.

After the additive DC leakage and the AC leakage errors have been eliminated from the raw data by this method, the conventional single-frequency-point calibration and multi-point calibration techniques can be applied and will produce accurate results over a much wider frequency range than when applied to raw data directly. The experimental data indicates that at 16 MHz system clock without any additional hardware the proposed method allows the expansion of the usable operational frequency range down to ˜100 Hz, enabling a very cost-efficient access to the frequencies two decades below 10 KHz. In the range above 10-20 KHz the DC and AC leakage errors do decrease and for certain low-dynamic range and narrow-frequency applications the AD5933 may deliver adequate results as is, but the proposed method enables a far superior performance at all frequencies, pushing the accuracy to the to the maximum that can be achieved by the device.

It should be noted that the expressions (1) through (3) are agnostic to the Nyquist frequency and allow for correct recovery of undersampled input signals. As it was mentioned earlier, the sampling of the input (and also the test phasor) takes place every 4 accumulator increments, so the excitation voltage is digitally synthesized at a sampling rate 4 times higher than the sampling rate of the input and, while the input may be undersampling, the excitation signal still satisfies Nyquist criterion. Notwithstanding the high-frequency input signal suppression by the low pass filter in the AD5933, signals at frequencies up to approximately 950 KHz can be measured and processed using this method, which allows to operate the AD5933 over nearly four-decade frequency range.

Skilled in the art would appreciate that the same methods and systems can be implemented using different hardware, for example ADuCM350 system-on-a-chip or DSP-based and FPGA-based systems for frequency synthesis, signal digitization and processing.

The various examples of the systems and methods around the use of AD5933 device described herein are representative of, and not to be considered limiting of the inventions disclosed and claimed herein.

TABLE 3 Frequency Code Δ_(Re) Δ_(Im) Re Im S_(Re) S_(Im) a b d ACos(φ) ASin(φ) 350 −31876 1085 33660 1085 1183 42 511.3485 −17.1626 0.651458 30.42142 1.292442 500 −31598 1591 33938 1591 1485 77 510.6713 −24.4914 1.328669 37.51647 1.108677 650 −31286 2109 34250 2109 1833 127 509.7565 −31.7920 2.243535 48.63099 0.562867 800 −30955 2638 34581 2638 2204 189 508.6052 −39.0560 3.394837 49.91987 0.500056 950 −30621 3179 34915 3179 2583 264 507.2190 −46.2751 4.781039 50.68654 0.468193 . . . 38150 −11252 8138 −11252 8138 −575 14385 252.5144 5.830521 259.4856 55.41419 −0.99759 38300 −11070 8014 −11070 8014 −566 14348 252.6733 5.946757 259.3267 55.30636 −0.93839 38450 −10899 7913 −10899 7913 −579 14344 252.8391 6.052567 259.1609 55.32530 −0.96559 38600 −10716 7807 −10716 7807 −577 14329 253.0111 6.147722 258.9889 55.30447 −0.93673 38750 −10550 7723 −10550 7723 −597 14340 253.1888 6.232035 258.8112 55.38323 −0.99471 . . . 76400 −894 13373 −894 13373 −507 14153 256.3599 0.639950 255.6401 55.35839 −1.83950 76550 −880 13364 −880 13364 −505 14150 256.3697 0.615147 255.6303 55.34895 −1.83700 76700 −867 13357 −867 13357 −503 14148 256.3781 0.589983 255.6219 55.34313 −1.83459 76850 −854 13349 −854 13349 −504 14151 256.3851 0.564535 255.6149 55.35655 −1.84390 77000 −847 13343 −847 13343 −506 14151 256.3908 0.538884 255.6092 55.35793 −1.85720 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for measuring DC signals utilizing the DFT detector comprising of the following steps: a. Using expressions (1) calculating the frequency range at which the in-phase output of a given DFT detector has a substantial gain factor for DC leakage, b. Choosing a frequency value form the frequency range calculated in step a. and for that frequency calculating the gain factor using expressions (1), c. Disconnecting the input of the DFT detector from any external circuits, d. Initiating and performing measurement at the frequency chosen in step b., e. Storing the in-phase output value of the DFT detector, f. Connecting the DFT detector input to the source of the DC signal of interest, g. Initiating and performing measurement at the frequency found in step a., h. Subtracting the value stored in step e. from the DFT detector in-phase output, i. The resulting value is measured level of the DC signal of interest with the gain factor determined in step b.
 2. A method of claim 1 performed over the quadrature output of the DFT detector
 3. A method of claim 1 performed over both the in-phase and quadrature outputs of the DFT detector, whereas the in-phase and quadrature values at step i. are divided by the respective gain factors calculated at step b. and averaged.
 4. A method of claim 3 performed over plurality of frequencies selected from the frequency range identified at step a. and all values at step i. at all frequencies are divided by the respective gain factors calculated at step b. and averaged.
 5. A method for eliminating the DC and AC leakage from the in-phase and quadrature components of an AC signal measured by DFT detector comprising of the following steps: a. Disconnecting the input of the DFT detector from any external circuits, b. Initiating and performing DFT measurement at the frequency of interest, c. Storing the in-phase and quadrature output values of the DFT detector, d. Connecting the DFT detector input to the source of the AC signal of interest, e. Initiating and performing measurement at the frequency set in step b., f. Subtracting the in-phase and quadrature values stored in step c. from the DFT detector in-phase and quadrature output values respectively, g. Calculating matrix elements a, b and d for given DFT detector at frequency set in step b. according to the expressions (2), h. Substituting the in-phase and quadrature values computed in step f. and matrix elements computed in step g. into the expressions (3) and performing the calculations of the in-phase and quadrature components of the AC signal of interest.
 6. A method of claim 5 performed over plurality of frequencies such as a frequency sweep, whereas the steps b. through h. are performed over said plurality of frequencies and required calculations are performed over vectors of values respectively constructed.
 7. An apparatus for performing both DC and AC measurements with DFT detector and eliminating the effects of DC and AC leakage comprising of: a. DFT detector, b. Means of connecting/disconnecting the input of DFT detector from the rest of the circuit, c. Means of connecting/disconnecting the input of DFT detector to the sources of DC and AC signals.
 8. An apparatus of claim 7, wherein the apparatus contains a stimulus source synchronized with the DFT detector test phasor.
 9. An apparatus of claim 7, wherein the apparatus contains calibrated DC signal source.
 10. An apparatus of claim 7, wherein the apparatus contains a calibrated AC signal source
 11. An apparatus of claim 8, wherein the apparatus contains a calibrated AC signal source synchronized with the DFT detector test phasor.
 12. An apparatus of claim 7, wherein the apparatus contains means of splitting the signal of interest to DC and AC components.
 13. An apparatus of claim 12, wherein the signal splitting is performed by passing the same signal through low-pass filter and high-pass filter and measuring the outputs of both filters with the same DFT detector.
 14. An apparatus of claim 7, wherein the DFT detector is a part of AD5933, AD5934, ADuCM350 or other essentially similar system-on-a-chip. 